Unprecedented GPS jamming attack affects 1600 aircraft over Europe

2 years ago by MicroWave to c/world

A 63-hour-long marathon of GPS jamming attacks disrupted global satellite navigation systems for hundreds of aircraft flying through the Baltic region – and Russia is thought to be responsible

Russia is suspected of launching a record-breaking 63-hour-long attack on GPS signals in the Baltic region. The incident, which affected hundreds of passenger jets earlier this month, occurred amid rising tensions between Russia and the NATO military alliance more than two years since the start of Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine.

“We have seen an increase in GPS jamming since the start of Russia’s war against Ukraine, and allies have publicly warned that Russia has been behind GPS jamming affecting aviation and shipping,” a NATO official told New Scientist. “Russia has a track record of jamming GPS signals and has a range of capabilities for electronic warfare.”

avater 135 points 2 years ago

Russia is really stretching this out, aren't they. Maybe they need some proper ass kicking to fall back in line.

At some point the west has to react.

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bstix 81 points 2 years ago

Never mind Russia, I'd be happy with anyone making a "special military operation" on Putin's whereabouts. NATO doesn't have to fight Russia. They only need the head of the snake.

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avater 59 points 2 years ago

don't think that this will work. Russia is rotten to the core and there is always another head.

we are fighting a hydra not a snake.

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bstix 38 points 2 years ago

Anyway, we should start at the top and work downwards. It's a waste of ammo to kill all the involuntary cannon fodder. If the top goes, Russia would have to reconstruct, however that might turn out.

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TheBat 5 points 2 years ago
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HaywardT 4 points 2 years ago

Middle out

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melpomenesclevage 1 point 2 years ago

A state can't fight like that though. Needs to be a non state actor.

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Duamerthrax 32 points 2 years ago

Except Putin's behavior isn't sane even by oligarch standards. Another corrupt leader would just take Putin's place, but they might not be inclined to continue with Ukraine. They could just blame it all on Putin and quietly retreat the military. It's not the best outcome, but at least Ukraine would be safe.

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Natanael 10 points 2 years ago

But doing it suddenly will create a power vacuum, which usually gets filled by the most ruthless people

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fuckingkangaroos 9 points 2 years ago

It's not just Putin, and it's not all of Russia. The Kremlin+oligarchs are the problem.

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CosmicCleric 13 points 2 years ago

Humanity really needs to figure out how to handle corrupt people in power.

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Plopp 4 points 2 years ago

While this is true, I think it's more likely than not that a successor doesn't share the same amount of Soviet fetishism. Putin is kinda out there and doing things that aren't great for Russian business. You only have to be slightly less mad than Putin to realize that.

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melpomenesclevage 1 point 2 years ago

But not the same shitty, abd since they're not Putin, they can disown this whole shit show and shut it down without looking weak.

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metaldream 10 points 2 years ago

So let the other heads see what happens when you fuck around too much.

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bluewing 9 points 2 years ago

Like many things political, you start doing outside political killings from another country, pretty soon you can find yourself dead as a political leader. It's playground tit-for-tat rules.

Plus, unless you are prepared for a "You break it, you buy it" situation, can and always will get something worse. See: the Middle East at this moment in time.

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melpomenesclevage 2 points 2 years ago

So the actual people need to be the ones to do this.

It really would be better for future stability if the people of Moscow did it anyway.

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kent_eh 1 point 2 years ago

See: the Middle East at this moment in time.

Or pretty much any point in time in the last several decades.

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melpomenesclevage 1 point 2 years ago

That's why none of them will do it.

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cmbabul 8 points 2 years ago

There is no way to convince me that the CIA, MI6, and/or Beijing couldn’t take him out if they wanted him gone, which makes me wonder why they wouldn’t, I guess World War III but it’s not like that’s not already a possibility

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ForgotAboutDre 8 points 2 years ago

There isn't a replacement in place for Putin that would be any different. Everyone that thinks and acts different is kept away from power in Russia. Pushed out of windows, deaths in prison or the aircraft falls out of the sky. There is a possibility that he is replaced by someone worse.

It's much better if he is removed from power by Russians. The next leader has to be different and havs the support of the people. Intelligence services taking him out won't achieve this. Your likely to get an extremists that tries to escalate the war in Ukraine.

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cmbabul 1 point 2 years ago

That remains true as long as he doesn’t start a nuclear exchange. If he starts really leaning in that direction I would expect a change in calculus

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Chewget 6 points 2 years ago path: 0 9009866 9009948 9025190 9027576, hotness: undefined, score: 6, children: 2
cmbabul 4 points 2 years ago

Different world between then and now, any claim of an attempt after the fall of the USSR is as sus as an Alabama national championship prior to 2000. Also I meant as mostly coordinated effort

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melpomenesclevage 0 points 2 years ago

Yes but he was a communist, not an oligarch, and by most accounts a pretty okay dude. So killing him was okay.

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MataVatnik 4 points 2 years ago

Because then Russia will try to assasinate US leaders

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melpomenesclevage -3 points 2 years ago

And that would be... Bad?

Presumably for like reasons or something?

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boredtortoise 3 points 2 years ago

Yea they even got OBL murdered when they wanted. It seems that they just don't want Putin gone for now, profits or "escalation" as a reason.

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melpomenesclevage 2 points 2 years ago

Nah. These are all state actors. They don't want to break the taboo on assassinating world leaders when they do atrocities, because they may want to do atrocities later.

So millions of poor fuckers die in the mud.

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scarabic 18 points 2 years ago

There are smart people in Russia who need better things to do. This bullshit is out of control.

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melpomenesclevage 2 points 2 years ago

There needs to not be a 'Russia' after this. Split it up. Try to keep the regions peaceful and shit, but absolutely divide them politically, so one cannot say 'Russia' is a meaningful entity.

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Land_Strider 6 points 2 years ago

Yeah, we know how it went with Africa. Sure. You'd like to do that from the comfort of your home, right?

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melpomenesclevage 0 points 2 years ago

Africa was carved up with the intent to be exploitable, with minority regimes that needed colonial support in power and intentional ethnic and resource conflicts aplenty.

Don't be a dick about it, carve it up based on extant cultural regions with balancedish resources, and it could work. At least closer to 'works' than having a 'Russia' is right now.

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crazyCat 5 points 2 years ago

Oh that sounds easy and like it surely would backfire spectacularly /s that’s how you get a nuclear war or similar.

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melpomenesclevage -5 points 2 years ago

You can't convince me Russia's nuclear arsenal works for shit, much less the missiles.

And even if one or two get through; still a net gain on human life over another year or ten of meat grinder warfare.

And if you put a bounty on Russian warheads....

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cosmicrookie 1 point 2 years ago

Russia will be paying back for these years, for decades to come.

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melpomenesclevage -3 points 2 years ago

Or just carve up Russia so no part us big enough to pull this shit again, and people there are less under the thumb of a handful of shit heads in Moscow/st Petersburg.

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cosmicrookie 5 points 2 years ago

I don't know really.. carving up Africa, did not really work too well. Although it does make sense to divide it into smaller independent regions, I don't see this happening to other mega countries like China, USA, India etc.

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Alexstarfire 0 points 2 years ago

Bring back Novgorod.

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mindlight 127 points 2 years ago

"...and Russia is thought to be responsible."

Nooooooo... Russia? Really? They would neeeveeeer?

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deafboy 71 points 2 years ago

Isn't that kinda pathetic? Jamming GPS is not hard, nor impressive. It's just annoying.

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CosmicCleric 29 points 2 years ago

Seems like a message is being sent.

I love to be a fly on the wall behind the scenes, as far as what's going on between the two sides, that they actually decided to do something as annoying as this.

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FlyingSquid 28 points 2 years ago

That's all they've got left after throwing all of their troops into the meat grinder.

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melpomenesclevage 13 points 2 years ago

Not all. Just too fucking many.

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Wiz 3 points 2 years ago

The thing about Russia is, they've always got more sausage they can make

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melpomenesclevage 0 points 2 years ago

That's why you cotta carve it up so its not 'Russia' anymore.

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ricdeh 2 points 2 years ago

Unfortunately, their recruitment rate is at a record high 😕

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DontAskAboutUpdog 13 points 2 years ago

Its on par with bringing the dog out when merkel was visiting. Thats all they have.

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laughterlaughter 11 points 2 years ago

As if being impressive is the goal of these attacks.

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out 9 points 2 years ago
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cosmicrookie 8 points 2 years ago

I dont think they are doing it to impess.

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nutsack 2 points 2 years ago

looks to be pretty effective to me

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melpomenesclevage -1 points 2 years ago

And that effect was...???

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shasta 6 points 2 years ago

Threatening the lives of EU citizens and commerce in an effort to force the European nations to withdraw support from Ukraine.

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melpomenesclevage 0 points 2 years ago

It was GPS spoofing. The navs fucked up.

Don't pilots still learn to work with a compas or stars? Radio guidance? Like, nothing that uses GPS is new.

It was just really inconvenient for a bunch of people.

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Siegfried 2 points 2 years ago

Maybe they were just testing reaction time

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melpomenesclevage 2 points 2 years ago

On a mostly civilian system with known fallbacks?

Edit: fuck em. You don't have to fight Russia, you just have to fight Moscow. If they manage to provoke Europe, they lose. Badly. They're barely managing to hold against supported Ukraine.

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jaybone 61 points 2 years ago

How much more will we allow these assholes to get away with? When does it stop?

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APassenger 18 points 2 years ago

When the West decides it's willing to risk flash dessication.

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capital 7 points 2 years ago

As shitty as Putin is, I don’t think he has a death wish.

I think we’ve made it clear we know where he is at all times. First reply we send is on his head.

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FlyingSquid 5 points 2 years ago

As shitty as Putin is, I don’t think he has a death wish.

How certain are you?

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capital 8 points 2 years ago

Remember his affinity for comically long tables for meeting people during the pandemic?

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Ultragigagigantic 0 points 2 years ago

What if putin was going to die soon from something?

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mr_robot2938 4 points 2 years ago

dessication

desiccation

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NineMileTower 3 points 2 years ago

I'm not sure what flash dessication is, but I'm willing to bet Putin would bring the world down with him if cornered.

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APassenger 13 points 2 years ago

Nuclear blast, where I focused on the heat and excluded the long, painful radiation deaths that would also occur.

Edit: radio - > radiation

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laverabe 1 point 2 years ago

It is highly likely that exactly zero Russias nukes work. Nuclear maintenance is extremely expensive, and there is a zero percent chance that corruption that we witnessed in tank maintenance and other areas of their military did not spread to their nuclear program. It has also been 34 years since they successful a launched a nuke.

Russia as a country has never launched a nuke (USSR did) so it's seriously debatable if they even have the capability.

And I'm not advocating for war, but Russia needs to have consequences for their actions, and the world needs to respond resolutely and immediately before this gets any worse.

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Burn_The_Right 10 points 2 years ago

It stops only when they are forced to stop and not a moment sooner. Who has the will or the ability? In the U.S., conservatives are on Putin's side, so as long as conservatives have any power (like they do now), they will back him.

The EU is sounding the alarms, but only France is stepping up to the plate ready to fight. As usual, the EU will just hope France will protect the rest of them.

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Anamana 3 points 2 years ago

Yeah I'm not gonna go to war over gps spamming attacks lol

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Prandom_returns 8 points 2 years ago

...because that's the only thing that russia has ever done to Eruopean countries...

/s

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xkforce 0 points 2 years ago

You volunteering to be cannon fodder?

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Prandom_returns 3 points 2 years ago

No, it's your turn.

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Anamana -4 points 2 years ago

I'm talking from my perspective

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Crowfiend 7 points 2 years ago

oh I don't live there so it's not my problem

First, they came for my friends, and when they asked for help I said, 'it doesn't affect me.'

Then, they came for my direct neighbors, and when they asked for help I said, 'not my house not my problem.'

Then they came for me, and there was nobody to ask for help.

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Shurimal 29 points 2 years ago

Guess it's time to dust off those VOR navigation skills, then..

And, as ususal, fuck Putler and his cronies.

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ReiRose 10 points 2 years ago path: 0 9010870 9012971, hotness: undefined, score: 10, children: 1
rammer 7 points 2 years ago

Europe is using same or similar systems. Also Europe has Galileo satnav system. But it has the same drawbacks as GPS.

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mea_rah 8 points 2 years ago

Correct me if I'm wrong, but VOR can be jammed just as easily? It's effectively just ground based GPS.

There are actually devices, that can to a certain extent resist jamming by rejecting signal coming from some direction while amplifying signal from other. Typically they amplify signal from space and reject signal from ground where the jammers would be. So in a way GPS is more resilient against jamming if you can use this device. But AFAIK they are only used for military purposes.

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dogslayeggs 14 points 2 years ago

That device is called a CRPA (pronounced serpa). They are very effective at anti-jam.

As far as VOR jamming, those use a VHF omni-directional antenna, so it can be jammed. It might be hard because of the omni-directional part and the numbers of them, but definitely doable.

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metaldream 2 points 2 years ago

Might have to break out the ole INS

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dogslayeggs 2 points 2 years ago

Inertial systems are good enough for rockets going to Mars, so why not a plane flying in a straight line?

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BastingChemina 6 points 2 years ago

According to wikipedia all modern aircraft should be equipped with an Inertial Navigation System. A system that gives the position of the aircraft by using a buch of accelerometers and gyroscopes.

The GPS is just there to adjust the position given by the INS.

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rooster_butt 16 points 2 years ago

IRSs drifts like crazy. If anything irs is the backup to GNSS currently.

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nucleative 4 points 2 years ago

Hopefully a few VOR and DME approaches left in the chart book.

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metaldream 1 point 2 years ago
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lukeblackwell86 28 points 2 years ago

Drone pilots are going to have to learn how to fold paper maps!

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HootinNHollerin 14 points 2 years ago

death to poopin

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irreticent 12 points 2 years ago
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Chee_Koala 9 points 2 years ago

Lol, can't even see where poot poots heels end, there could be 3-4 cm of extra lift hidden under those pantaloons!

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Wiz 2 points 2 years ago

Ah, the good old Desantis boot trick!

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foggy 12 points 2 years ago

Is this where the beginning g of the end of free open GPS starts?

Been wondering when we'd have to start paying for the privilege to use an encrypted private GPS service.

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Kidplayer_666 84 points 2 years ago

It wouldn’t matter against jamming though. You just need a jammer that screams louder

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ramble81 49 points 2 years ago

Yup. As long as you’re transmitting via radio waves, if something on that frequency “screams” louder, you won’t get the original signal. That’s why the FCC has strict rules against radio interference. About the only way you could get past that would be some sort of laser guided/optical communications, but would be damn near impossible given the number of planes and weather conditions.

Luckily the louder something screams the more easy it is to pinpoint.

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Kidplayer_666 14 points 2 years ago

I mean, doesn’t matter. We pinpoint russia and then what. Sure, we can retaliate and block their comma, and radio communication doesn’t work for both of us. We can always invade, but a load of political capital is needed, and the west doesn’t exactly have the most ammo ever right now.

Finally, I think the true source is this

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suzune 3 points 2 years ago

It's nice that they "scream" there. It's the way you know that they are hiding their ammo and weapons routes there. Instead of complaining, we should target these routes. Hey... they are outside russian borders... so....

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Anyolduser 8 points 2 years ago

"Our system is unjammable! Just make sure this laser receiver has clear line of sight with three satellites way up in geosynchronous orbit at all times."

"You're fucking with me, right?"

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AdamEatsAss 6 points 2 years ago

No . That's how it would work. That's why we don't use it, because of things like weather, birds, space debris, and other planes. its more secure but technically very difficult.

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bstix 3 points 2 years ago

It would matter if they chose not to jam certain frequencies due to some agreement.

Thinking only of GPS-like services, there are multiple suppliers who could take advantage of Russia jamming other services. GPS is only one, owned by the American air force. Other suppliers might be more open to making agreements with Russia. Money can make things happen.

I'm not saying it's like that, only that it is possible for bad actors to benefit from playing on both sides in a jamming war, just like any other kind of war.

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cooljacob204 -3 points 2 years ago

In a war like this they jam everything and anything they can. No commercial solutions would be loopholed out of it.

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bstix 1 point 2 years ago

... unless money.

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dogslayeggs -2 points 2 years ago

Unless they are on a different wavelength from GPS, which is what Xona is doing.

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Kidplayer_666 5 points 2 years ago

Ok, then they just block that one

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dogslayeggs 0 points 2 years ago

Do you think country-wide jamming of a high-power radio signal is easy? The magnitude of difference between jamming a building and jamming at airline altitudes or at long distances is massive. You don't just go out and buy a jammer that blocks GPS for a country.

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postmateDumbass 4 points 2 years ago

That will not fix this, unless your private service flies their own satellites with more transmitter power

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dogslayeggs -1 points 2 years ago

Xona is out there planning their own satellite constellation in their own band of the spectrum (so not jammed at the same time as GPS), and is fully encrypted.

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BakerBagel 8 points 2 years ago

Russia could just as easily jam two signals at once.

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dogslayeggs 0 points 2 years ago

Not just as easily. Broad-spectrum jamming is more difficult, so they either develop one of those with enough power to jam both signals (not as easy) or the build twice as many jammers (not as easy).

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GBU_28 2 points 2 years ago

That's not how jamming works

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dogslayeggs -1 points 2 years ago

Explain how jamming works. The person isn't saying encryption overcomes jamming, just that encryption will be used to make the new system private and paid instead of free to use. Not being GPS will make it avoid GPS jamming.

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GBU_28 4 points 2 years ago

It doesn't matter if you encrypt it, it still has to make information out of communication with satellites. Jamming saturates the band range that something is attempting to communicate across. So no sensible information is available because it's all noise

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dogslayeggs 0 points 2 years ago

Did you not read what I said? I said "the person isn't saying that encryption overcomes jamming, just that encryption will be used to make the new system private and paid." At no point did I say or imply that encryption helps overcome jamming. I did say that since they don't transmit on the same frequency as GPS then jamming GPS won't affect it (depending on how close their L-band range is to the GPS L-band range).

I design GPS satellites for a living. I understand how jamming works.

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halva 1 point 2 years ago

that's... not how gps works, y'know?

the satellites only send out signal, they don't care about the ground

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dogslayeggs -6 points 2 years ago

You are talking about Xona. Private company, fully encrypted signal, paid service, not jammed at the same frequency as GPS.

EDIT: I would love for one of the people who down-voted me to explain what was wrong with my completely factual description of a company who is doing exactly what this person asked about.

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brianorca 1 point 2 years ago

If enough people are using this new system, Russia could easily pivot to target it as well. Jamming is not inherently hard, especially if a nation is attempting it.

Jamming in the US will bring the FCC down your throat. The stronger the signal, the faster they will show up. Russia transmitting a jamming signal from Russia doesn't have to worry about such things. A jamming device is not hard to find, but on sovereign soil it's still untouchable short of war.

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dogslayeggs 1 point 2 years ago

Not the point of the post I replied to or my post. I develop GPS satellites for the Space Force. I understand jamming quite well and know what capabilities Russia has.

The person didn't say that this hypothetical private system couldn't be jammed. They said that if GPS is jammed then it opens up a niche for a private company to sell their own service. I said that exact thing is happening. That isn't to say that service couldn't also get jammed, but Russia is mainly jamming GPS because it affects military missions. Since the military wouldn't be using this private company, then Russia is unlikely to jam their signal.

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BakerBagel 1 point 2 years ago

How does Russia jamming GPS open a market for a private GPS service? Russia can just jam the private network alongside the government operated one. So now people in the Baltics are gettinf blacked out of a service they are oaying a subscription to instead of one they are poggybacking off of for free.

At best they are talking about something completely unrelated to the news article.

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roguetrick 11 points 2 years ago

If anyone died that would've been article 5. Are they nuts?

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madcaesar 36 points 2 years ago

Russia already shot down a passenger jet and nothing happened.

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roguetrick 10 points 2 years ago

That's quite different than attacking directly over the airspace of NATO members.

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cooljacob204 -8 points 2 years ago

Also arguably an accident.

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Empricorn 17 points 2 years ago

Yes, but only if it can be proven it was absolutely Russia. And then it has to be proven that it was approved by their government as an official act, not just some vodka-soaked hackers somewhere in Siberia....

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BreakDecks 8 points 2 years ago

Might be worth some degree of suspicion around including GLONASS as a part of GNSS. Russia could create worldwide issues if they decided to fuck around with their constellation.

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theyoyomaster 4 points 2 years ago

It would probably be easier for them to mess with it and not affect themselves than it is with GPS and Galileo.

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Iceman 7 points 2 years ago

All right, we’re Jammin’

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ikidd 3 points 2 years ago

Jammin' in the name of the lord.

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RalphFurley 1 point 2 years ago

I was always a fan of Log Jammin

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Emerald 7 points 2 years ago

I feel like these planes should be able to fall back on other GNSS. Like Galileo, GLONASS, or even BeiDou.

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lengau 14 points 2 years ago

I would guess this is a matter of the media talking about all GNSS as "GPS" rather than the planes only supporting the US military's navigation system.

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BreakDecks 12 points 2 years ago

GLONASS

Fall back to the Russian GNSS constellation to defend against Russian GNSS manipulation?

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Emerald 1 point 2 years ago

I mean hey, why not?

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SkyezOpen 2 points 2 years ago

Let's be real, they probably aren't jamming themselves?

Who am I fucking kidding, they probably are with how the war has been going.

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sturmblast 5 points 2 years ago

I'm betting on Russia being the culprit

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JasonDJ 4 points 2 years ago

How do you stop a jammer like this, short of turning off the transmitters responsible for it?

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digeridoo 8 points 2 years ago

As others have said, you can't passively bypass GNSS jamming. The signal more or less has the same amount of power as a 60 watt light bulb, transmitted from a satellite out in Medium Earth Orbit. You throw enough energy at the same frequency as the signal and it's over. There are ways to improve the receivers resilience by giving it more signals to connect to (GPS, Galileo, GLONASS, BeiDou) or several signals being transmitted by the same constellation (L1, L2, L5).

Also, many different systems occupy pretty much the same frequencies, just with different characteristics which makes all the signals more susceptible.

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Everythingispenguins 5 points 2 years ago

You can't. Think of it like two radio stations that are too close. It doesn't matter how good of a receiver you have it will only ever pick up the signals being transmitted. And when there is noise on the frequency then that is what it will pick up.

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ricdeh 0 points 2 years ago

Well there's always the option of outcompeting each other in signal intensity, but I guess that that's not really possible in this case.

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trolololol 4 points 2 years ago

Best way to mitigate is have an inertial system. It's a calculator that, based on where you are and where you're heading, keeps track of your updated position.

The math is not that crazy, but with enough time the sensors errors crop up and you'll be slightly off course, then a bit, then a lot.

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cybort1983 4 points 2 years ago

I would suggest HARM Missiles launched from F/A 18 Aircraft. That will teach the effing russians to mess with GPS

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Unpigged 0 points 2 years ago

Destroy our otherwise turn off the source of interference.

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pedroapero 1 point 2 years ago
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PugJesus -7 points 2 years ago

Article 5

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irreticent 4 points 2 years ago
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normalandy -19 points 2 years ago

Not at all- but definitely not to US or NATO. I also dislike Russia with a passion! Maybe now you can switch and get me on hate speech? 😂

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normalandy -38 points 2 years ago

You could argue ‘who benefits from blaming Russia n Europe?’ - and then look at the propaganda campaign for nato. It’s not in European interests to fight an American war.

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Demuniac 10 points 2 years ago

It's not an American war, they have literally attacked a European country.

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maynarkh 8 points 2 years ago

Yeah, it also doesn't help with the situation that half of Europe has multiple past Russian invasions in their history, and Russia's leadership has repeatedly voiced territorial claims to multiple European countries.

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Unpigged 8 points 2 years ago

You're either a delusional cunt or a russian Ivan on a paycheck as tiny as your limp dick.

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SkyezOpen 6 points 2 years ago

Nice fresh account, vatnik.

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normalandy -59 points 2 years ago

Russia, Russia, Russia. Whenever they start crowing about those fuckers I can be sure that the truth is something entirely different.

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arf 30 points 2 years ago

I invite you to check the multitude of examples and references here. Russia's history of cyberwarfare goes way beyond the US media's recent obsession.

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normalandy 1 point 2 years ago

The wiki site does say ‘claimed’ for all those attacks

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laughterlaughter -1 points 2 years ago

Recent? As if the cold war never happened.

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BreakDecks 3 points 2 years ago

They never said "recent". The cold war ended in 1989, and GPS became fully operational in 1993. Not sure what your point is...

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laughterlaughter 1 point 2 years ago

I'm talking about "the U.S. media's recent obsession."

The word "recent" is in the comment I replied to.

They never said "recent".

Are you one of them gaslighters Gen-Zers keep referring to?

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BreakDecks 9 points 2 years ago

Have you watched the news in the past 2 years?

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blazeknave 6 points 2 years ago

*20

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maynarkh 4 points 2 years ago

*70 at least

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blazeknave 1 point 2 years ago

Look at J.Edgar here ;p

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jordanlund 4 points 2 years ago

Who else would have the interest or capability of jamming GPS over Europe? Curious to see who you think it could be if not Russia.

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blazeknave 3 points 2 years ago

New troll account just created to post this garbage. Mods block please.

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